SAINT THOMAS CHRISTIANS AND THEIR CROSSES:
TRADITION OF VENERATION OF CROSS
BY
Dr Martin Thomas Antony
Independent Scholar, England
This paper was presented to the XIII Symposium Syriacum and 11th Conference of Christian Arabic Studies at INALCO Paris July 4-9 2022 and has been published in Parole de l’Orient 2025 (Antony, Martin Thomas, Saint Thomas Christians and their Crossess: Tradition of veneration of Cross, Parole de l’ Orient 51(2025) 17-37
The East-Syriac Church venerated ‘Sleeva’ (Cross) from the early Christian era. The Saint Thomas Christians in South India inherited the tradition early on and incorporated indigenous cultural elements into it. Archaeological and Epigraphic evidence indicates three different designs of crosses and their respective uses. This paper is a visual representation of the multifaced phenomenon of the various crosses among the Saint Thomas Christians with the help of photographs. Close scrutiny of these crosses helps us understand the evolution of a Judeo-Christian community in India that grew by assimilating local cultural elements into its worship rituals.
Initially, large open-air rock crosses were erected on the wayside. These crosses in public spaces served as places of worship for Christians and non-Christians alike. They also provided devotees with facilities to light oil lamps and do the ritual of breaking the coconut and sprinkling the coconut water, a local customary religious ritual among the south Indian ‘Dravidians’. Probably, the first church buildings evolved around these open-air crosses.
More complex bas-relief East-Syriac crosses appeared as altar crosses in the later centuries. A unique feature of these crosses is the Pahlavi inscriptions in the middle Persian script. These crosses probably date back to the fourth century AD. The study of this genre of granite altar crosses with Pahlavi inscriptions show evidence of the immigration of Persian Christians to South India. The design shows further indoctrination and theological development. The native Christians made multiple copies of these crosses and adopted local cultural elements, making it an inculturated icon of worship in South India.
The third category, the equilateral flowery crosses were used as hand-held blessing crosses by ecclesiastical dignitaries. The design of this cross appears also as seals on church walls, altars and open-air crosses as well as on the steeples of church buildings in most of the ancient settlements. Ancient murals, too, give testimony to the blessing crosses.
Crosses in the early Christianity
Cross was considered an image of punishment. Primitive Christian groups used the image of fish as their symbol. Clement of Alexandria of the third century speaks about the Cross as the symbol of our Lord[1]. The Cross became a public symbol of Christians after Emperor Constantine of the fourth century.
The first known Christian cross symbol is found in one of the mid-fourth century sarcophagus cover in the Vatican- crux immissa[2]. Crucifixion icons are seen from the fifth century onwards, for example, the wooden door of the basilica Santa Sabina of Rome and an ivory casket kept in the British museum[3]. Egeria, a Christian pilgrim in the 5th century to the Holy Land narrated crosses in the Churches in Jerusalem[4].
Judeo-Christian community and Crosses
Cross in ancient Christianity did not originate as an allusion to the crucifixion but in the Hebrew letter, taw (X or +) signified the name of God. Jewish Christians identified the name of God with Christ, the word of God. The cross symbol was used in early Christianity as a seal on the forehead on baptism and in prayers as a sign of exorcism and consecration[5]. The East Syriac Church even considered the sign of the Cross as a sacrament[6]. The symbolism of the Cross gained prominence in East Syriac tradition much earlier than other traditions[7]. There is archaeological evidence that east Syrians erected crosses in their tombs. Ruins found on the Island of Kharg with architectural features of the third century contain Christian tombs with crosses and Syriac inscriptions[8].
Ancient Crosses of Saint Thomas Christians
The most famous and the most studied of the ancient crosses of saint Thomas Christians is the ancient cross found at Mailappore by the Portuguese missionaries in AD 1547 while digging the ruins of the ancient monastery there[9]. This cross was reported to have sweated blood on several occasions and Portuguese Missionaries proclaimed it as the miraculous cross of Mailappore[10]. A plaster-cast replica of this cross was displayed in the Vatican Missionary exhibition in 1925[11]. This is a granite bas-relief cross with a lotus on the bottom with a plain cross erected from it with three buds at the ends of the four arms and a descending dove on the top.
Saint Thomas Christians and Cross
The living tradition of Saint Thomas Christians in India narrates Apostle Thomas erecting crosses in the Christian communities he founded. Acts of Apostles in the Bible does not comment about any such acts by any Apostles. The apocryphal book Acts of Apostle Thomas also describes the Apostle performing miracles with a simple sign of the cross[12]. This could be the Judeo-Christian practice of sanctifying with the sign of Tau, the name of God as mentioned earlier.
Ancient churches named after Mar Sleeva, Holy Cross
Many of the most ancient Churches of Saint Thomas Christians were named after Mar Sleeva or Holy Cross. For example, the most ancient church at Muttuchira in the Kottayam District of Kerala where the ancient Muttuchira lithic inscriptions are found was a Mar Sleeva Church from where the Sleeva was moved to the newly erected Church which was named after saint Francis Assissi in the 16th century[13]. The ancient church at Cherpumkal near Palai in the Kottayam District and the ancient church at Mapranam in the Trichur District of Kerala are Mar Sleeva Churches. Ancient Church at Thazhekkadu in Trichur District in Kerala which today is named after Saint Sebastian was a Mar Sleeva Church[14] which was renamed after saint Sebastian by the Latinising Missionaries, where the deity is called by local worshippers even today as Kurishu muthappan, a personified name in which Kurishu means Cross and muthappan means great father. (In Syriac language, the word for cross is sleeva which also means the one who was crucified – Jesus. Therefore, sleeva is Jesus and Kurishumuthappan is Jesus)
Accounts of ancient visitors
Giovanni da Empoli
Giovanni da Empoli, one of the early European travellers wrote in 1503 AD that when he arrived at the port at Quilon where he found about 3000 Christians who claimed they were Christians from the time of Saint Thomas and they led him to a church of Saint Mary where he reported a cross was venerated[15].
Duarte Barbosa
Duarte Barbosa was a Portuguese traveller who arrived in Malabar in 1498. Duarte Barbosa narrates that the Church in Quilon has a cross on the altar[16]. In Cape of Comory (Cape Comorin) also, the Christians have crosses on their altars[17].
Jornada of Archbishop Alexis de Menesis
Antonio Gouvea who narrated the visit of Archbishop Alexis De Menesis of Goa in 1599 to the churches and communities in Kerala narrates that the Saint Thomas Christians had great affection and reverence for the Cross, even the non-Christians also venerated them and offer it their vows and offerings. Crosses are seen all over Malabar even in out-of-the-way roads and junctions with the facility to light lamps[18].
Antonio Gouvea commented that the old churches in Kerala at the time of the visit of Archbishop Alexis De Menesis in AD 1599 period were all built like the temples of the gentiles but all full of crosses like that of the miraculous cross of Mailappore[19].
These are clear witnesses that all the Saint Thomas Christian Churches were adorned with Crosses of the design of Mailappore Cross- the Pahlavi inscribed Lotus Cross dove design. Antonio Gouvea was very clear about the design of these altar crosses as that of the Mailappore cross- the lotus cross and dove design.
Joseph the Indian
Joseph the Indian Priest who was interviewed by the Signoria of Venice in 1502 AD narrated that Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala had only crosses inside the Churches and in the courtyard of the Church also a cross[20]. Here, Joseph is talking about the altar cross and the open-air granite cross in the courtyard.
Three different designs of Crosses
There are three designs of ancient crosses among the Saint Thomas Christians.
1. The open-air free-standing granite crosses
2. The Pahlavi inscribed cross lotus dove design – altar crosses
3. The equilateral flowery crosses.
The open-air free-standing crosses are mostly seen in the open-air space near a church or settlement of Christians. Lotus cross dove design crosses are usually bas-relief granite slabs used as altar crosses. The equilateral flowery crosses are used as steeple crosses, stucco crosses on the wall of churches or even on open-air crosses as ornamentation.
1. Open-air free-standing granite crosses
Open air Cross at Changanacherry, Kerala, India
Joseph the Indian reports about the open-air crosses as crosses on the courtyard of the Churches[21]. Antonio Gouvea also narrates about open-air crosses all over Malabar and they are much fewer in Europe[22]. These are very popular as they are seen in the open-air spaces near
churches and settlements. These could be the most ancient and primitive cros-ses among the saint Thomas Christians in Kerala as these are very simple in design and with minimal artistic finish. Some of them bear inscriptions in Syriac and vattezhuthu, an ancient form of script in Kerala.
Even though no historical evidence, Malabar Christians carry orally transmitted traditions through different songs that Apostle Thomas erected crosses in the communities he founded. With the available historical evidence, we can assume that these crosses were erected in open spaces and some places even before a Church was built. This parallels the worship of the primitive South Indian Dravidian communities who did not have a temple or building of worship. They used a big or peculiar tree like a palm tree with very long florals or a Banyan tree on an open space or a piece of rock etc as their places of worship. Later, small idols of snakes were on the base of a large tree and worshipped without any temple or buildings.
South Indian Dravidian Kavu- worship in open space.
South Indian Dravidian Kavu- worship in open air space
Base of the Open air cross Koratty, Kerala, India- facilities for worship in Dravidian rituals.
Base of Open air cross Kuravilangadu, Kerala, India- facilities for worship in Dravidian rituals.
Primitive Dravidian Saint Thomas Christians also copied this Dravidian tradition of worship in an open space with this open-air granite crosses which is very tall like a tree with facilities on the base for lighting oil lamps, breaking coconut as a sacrifice etc. Breaking coconut is a classical way of non-animal sacrifice among the Dravidian Hindu community even today in their temples and traditional pilgrim centres. The coconut has flesh on the shell and water inside, on throwing the coconut on the hard ground, it breaks and the water in the shell bleeds like the blood of an animal of sacrifice. Many of the ancient open-air rock crosses have facilities to break coconuts on their base. On close examination, one can see lotus petals on the base of these crosses similar to the depiction of Hindu deities sitting on a lotus flower. These crosses are very tall like the obelisk of ancient Egyptians[23]. All the ancient crosses are minimal in the artistic finish, simple in design and mostly eroded due to age. Even local Hindu communities also worshipped in front of these crosses. These crosses stood on open spaces in junctions etc and have facilities to light lamps which will function as a light posts and also function as storage of fire in ancient times[24]. Thus, these crosses functioned as an object among the people whether Christian or non-Christian with beneficiary functions for everyone, becoming a public idol. These became a place of worship for non-Christian communities as well and the author has witnessed in his childhood, Hindu brethren conducting Hindu religious rituals in front of the open-air cross in front of the church in his remote village during the time of the main feast of the Church.
Evolution of Christian worship from the Dravidian form of worship rituals
These crosses were the most primitive places of worship among the ancient saint Thomas Christians. The following examples support the evolution of worship from this Dravidian form of worship rituals among the primitive Saint Thomas Christians.
1. Muttuchira lithic inscription at the Ruha D Kudsha Church at Muttuchira in Kottayam District of Kerala of the Syro Malabar Church narrates the erection of the granite cross on the open ground and later it developed into building a church near it[25].
2. Ancient church at Thazhekkadu in Trichur District of the Syro Malabar Church where the faithful erected a cross and later it became a Church[26].
3. Antonio Gouvea describes Archbishop Menesis celebrating a Pontifical mass in the centre of the city of Kodungalloor in front of a cross with no specific church building but some walls on three sides only, leaving the fourth side open suggesting the gradual development of a chapel around the cross[27].
4. Kottayam Kurishupally, a Church belonging to the Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church where an open-air cross was first erected and later a church was built all around with this cross on the sanctuary –madbha[28].
5. The famous Purathu namaskaram[29], celebrating the Liturgy of Hours in front of the Open-air cross of the ancient Church at Kaduthuruthy of the Knanaya Syro Malabar Church on the feast of the three-day fast- Fasting of Ninevites- Moonnu noyambu is a vestige of the ancient practice of worship around the open-air granite cross before the evolution of church building[30]. Knanaya community, being an endogamous minority community among saint Thomas Christians diligently preserved almost all of the ancient traditions of Saint Thomas Christians while the rest of Thomas Christians communities gradually forgot the ancient traditions due to ‘latinisations’ and ‘west syriacisation’ of the different Thomas Christian communities.
Moreover, the open-air rock crosses have a very important socio-cultural significance among the Saint Thomas Christians. When the Coonan Cross oath, the great revolt of saint Thomas Christians against the Portuguese Missionaries and their latinisations took place in AD 1663, the community assembled in front of an open-air granite cross at Mattancherry and tied long ropes on it for everybody to hold on to it to pledge that they would not submit to Archbishop Garcia and the Jesuits[31].
2. Lotus Cross and Dove- Sassanian Pahlavi inscribed granite cross tablets
Alengad cross, Kerala, India
This design is a later development probably associated with the arrival of Persian migrant Christians. Sassanian Pahlavi inscriptions confirm the Persian origin. The adoption of local artistic elements evolved these into an inculturated symbol of worship. These are granite bas-relief crosses found in the altars of ancient churches. These are probably the only developed inculturated icon of worship among the Saint Thomas Christians of India. These are plain crosses with a lotus on the bottom from which a cross erects on it and a dove descending on it. The arms of the crosses end on a three-bud-like design.
Joseph the Indian in his narrations at the signoria of Venice in 1502 talks about the Saint Thomas Christian Churches having only a cross inside[32]. As mentioned before, Duarte Barbosa, Giovanni da Empoli, are early travellers who witnessed the veneration of the cross among Saint Thomas Christians in the pre-Portuguese period. Antonio Gouvea who narrated the visits of Archbishop Alexis De Menesis in 1599 reported that the old churches of saint Thomas Christians were built like the temples of the gentiles but full of crosses like the miraculous cross of Mailappore and added that these Christians call it Saint Thomas crosses[33].
Therefore, it is clear that at the time of the arrival of the Portuguese Missionaries in India in the 15th century, the saint Thomas Christians widely used altar crosses of the Lotus, Cross and Dove design for worship.
There are 8 ancient crosses of this design have been excavated in south India. They are:
1. Mailappore cross- the famous Miraculous cross of Mailappore kept as an altar cross at Saint Thomas Mount Church at Mailappore
2. Kottayam Valiya Pally right side altar cross (Saint Mary’s Kananaya Syriac Orthodox Church Kottayam, Kerala)
3. Kottayam valiya pally left side altar cross
4. Kothanalloor Cross- (SS Gervasis and Proctasis Syro Malabar Church Kothanalloor, Kottayam District of Kerala)
5. Muttuchira cross- (Ruha D Khuhsha Church Muttuchira, Kottayam District, Kerala of the Syro Malabar Church)
6. Kadamattam Cross (Saint George Syriac Orthodox Church, Kadamattom, Ernakulam District of Kerala)
7. Alangad cross (Saint Mary’s Church Alengad, Ernakulam District, Kerala of Syro Malabar Church)
8. Goa- Agassaim Cross (Saint Peter’s Chapel, Dando, Agassaim, Goa).
Among these, the Kothanalloor cross does not have any inscriptions on it. All the others bear Pahlavi inscriptions. CPT Winkworth interpreted that all these inscriptions are copies of an original[34]. Based on the epigraphic features, B T Anklesaria comments that the Alengad cross could be the most ancient and the original from which other copies were made and this could be from the 4th century[35].
From the pattern of these crosses, one can find that the crosses on the western coast of south India show more rudimentary characteristics and ancient epigraphy compared to the east coast of south India where the design becomes finer and adopts many local south Indian features like pillars, arch and Makara Torana[36] etc. This shows that the origin of these crosses was the Persian immigrants who arrived on the west coast and when the local Christians copied it and spread it to the east coast, it imbibed many local cultural elements. These crosses are the earliest example of inculturated Christian art in India[37]. These represent the only locally evolved religio-cultural symbol of Saint Thomas Christians of India.
Alengad cross seems to be the most ancient as the design is simple, with no pillars or arch and no Makara Torana design as seen in the Mailappore cross.
The most ancient crosses bear a rudimentary leafy design on the base which evolved into a clear lotus-like design. The crosses of China depict the lotus clearly but they do not have the descending dove.
This design of crosses was used as processional crosses as well. An example is the ancient bell metal cross found at Muttuchira[38].
3. Equilateral flowery crosses
Niranam Steeple cross
These are equilateral crosses with flowery ends to all four arms. These flowery decorations may join together making it look like a cross with a wavy circle around it. These crosses are seen as steeple crosses on the roof of the Churches, stucco crosses on the wall of church buildings and open-air rock crosses. Also seen on the gables of houses and buildings. The blessing crosses used by the clergy were also of this design.
Examples:
Kottakkavu sleeva
A stone pillar seen in front of the Syro Malabar Church at Kottakkavu shows an engraving of this design. This pillar could have been part of an open-air rock cross. It has been reported that the design of this cross is similar to stucco crosses found in excavations at Sir Baniyas island[39].
Kottakkavu sleeva
Pallippuram sleeva
This is an ancient wooden cross kept at the ancient Marth Maryam Syro Malabar Church at Pallippuram in Alleppey District. This cross is engraved as a basrelief on a rectangular piece of wood with a few holes on the edges. The cross is engraved obliquely. This may suggest that this was a part of a ship with a cross engraved on a wooden
panel on the side of the front part of
This is an ancient wooden cross kept at the ancient Marth Maryam Syro Malabar Church at Pallippuram in Alleppey District. This cross is engraved as a basrelief on a rectangular piece of wood with a few holes on the edges. The cross is engraved obliquely. This may suggest that this was a part of a ship with a cross engraved on a wooden
panel on the side of the front part ofthe ship where the wooden panels are obliquely placed for a raised front but the cross engraved in the right orientation on the ship but oblique on the wooden panels.
Pallippuram Granite stucco
| Pallippuram Church- stucco cross | There is a long semi-cylindrical granite piece kept on the back wall of Marth Maryam Church at Pallippuram with both cross-sectional ends engraved with this design of the cross. It is not clear what was the purpose of the semicylindrical pillar, possibly a tomb slab of some important persons as a semi-cylinder. |
Handheld blessing crosses in murals
The handheld blessing crosses of pre-Portuguese clergy were of this design as evidenced by ancient mural pictures. The murals at Mar Sabor Afroath Church at Akapparampu show portraits of Archbishop Mar Joseph, and Archbishop Mar Abraham, the mural at Marth Maryam Church Angamaly shows a portrait of Archdeacon Giwargis d Mshiha (George of Christ) Bishop-elect of Palayoor[40] and a wooden picture at Kottayam Cheria Pally of Mar Gabriel[41] who was an East Syriac Bishop arrived in AD 1708 all shows hand held blessing crosses of this design confirming that blessing crosses used by clergy were of this design.
| Archbishop Mar Joseph (1563-1568) – Mural from Mar Sabor – Afroath Church Akapparampu | Archdeacon Giwargis, (George of the cross (d. 1585) Bishop – elect of Palur- Murals Marth Maryam Church Angamali |
| Archbishop Mar Abraham (d. 1597) – Mural from Mar sabor Afroath Church, Akapparampu | Mar Gabriel (d. 1731) – Kottayam Cheria palli (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/ad/Mar_Gabriel_of_Ardishai. jpg) |
This design of cross is widely seen as stucco crosses on numerous open-air granite crosses and church walls. An ancient bell at the ancient Marth Maryam Major Archi episcopal Pilgrim Centre at Kuravilangadu, a stucco cross of this design is seen[42]. This type of crosses is widespread in South India. At Chennai, at the Bishops House of Mailappore, several stucco crosses were seen on stone pieces from ruins of an older church as reported by Rev. Henry Hosten[43].
| Base of Open air cross Kanjirappalli Akkara palli, Kerala, India | Base of Open air ctoss, Kaduthuruthy, Kerala, India |
Religio cultural significance
The sign of the living cross was one of the seven sacraments in the Church of the East according to Abdisho of Nisibis in his book of Pearl[44] (Marganeetha). Crosses were widely used by Saint Thomas Christians to sanctify objects, places persons etc. Muttuchira Lithic inscriptions narrate erecting a cross on a plain ground to sanctify the land before erecting a Church in AD 1528[45]. Sanctifying the land with a cross is a practice in the western Church as well. Henry Hosten citing Pontificale Romanum reports that the building of a Church cannot be begun before a Bishop or his delegate approved the site, placed a cross there and blessed the first stone[46]. Crosses are popularly engraved on the gables of houses among Saint Thomas Christians. Doors, door locks, furniture, vehicles even canoes are engraved with crosses.
Sanctifying food by a sign of the cross on the unprepared food before everyday cooking is a common practice among Saint Thomas Christians. During the pesaha meal, the bread is cooked with a cross made from palm leaves used on the oshana Sunday. Saint Thomas Christian Priests bless the faithful with a sign of the cross on the forehead as a sacrament(al).
Conclusion
Saint Thomas Christians venerate crosses from ancient times. Crosses and the ‘sign of the cross’ are part of their everyday life even in cooking for sanctification. Many of their ancient churches are named after Mar Sleeva, Holy Cross. Open-air free-standing crosses are common in Kerala reminding the ancient Dravidian worship rituals inherited by Christians in this multi-cultural society. Pahlavi inscribed Lotus, Cross and Dove Crosses are witnessing the Persian connection of Saint Thomas Christians and the evolution of an inculturated icon of worship among Saint Thomas Christians of India.
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[2]) Graydon F. Snyder, Ante Pacem: Archaeologocal Evidence of Church life before Constantine, Mercer University Press, 2003, p. 61.
[3]) Graydon F. Snyder, Ante Pacem: Archaeological Evidence of Church life before Constantine, Mercer University Press, 2003, p. 61; Professor Ernest John Tynsley, The coming of the dead and the naked Crist, Religion, vol. 2, issue 1, 1972, p. 26.
[4]) George E. Gingras, Egeria: Diary of a Pilgrimage, Newman Press, New York, 1970, pp. 23-25.
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[6]) Jacob Kollamparambil, “The Persian Crosses in India are Christian, not Manichaen”, Christian Orient, March 1994, p. 29 citing Abdisho of Soba, Liber argaritae, tract IV, ch. I and Tract T, ch. 2.
Mar Awa Royel, The Sacraments of the Assyrian Church of the East, p. 10 https://www.academia.edu/31740603/The_Sacraments_of_the_Assyrian_Church_of_the_East accessed on 02 January 2023.
[7]) George Nedungatt, “Quest for the historical Thomas Apostle of India, a re-reading of the evidence”, Theological publications in India, Bangalore, 2008, p. 386.
[8]) Ernest E Herzfield, “Archaeological History of Iran”, The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy, 1934, London, pp. 103-104.
[9]) Carmel Iturriotz, (tr.), “The Mount Cross of Saint Thomas and its Pahlavi inscriptions, 1547-62 AD”, in T. K. Joseph, ed., Kerala Society Papers, II series 9 1932, p. 222 translated from Esplendores da Religio, April 1930, pp. 160-162, notes taken by the Bishop of Cochin Dom Frey Andre, from the Archives of the Society of Jesus.
[10]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De Menezes: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, p. 245, see footnote 190.
[11]) Henry Hosten, Antiquities from San Thome and Mailappore, 1936, p. 337.
[12]) George Nedungatt, “Quest for the historical Thomas Apostle of India, a re reading of the evidence”, Theological publications in India, Bangalore, 2008, p. 386.
[13]) Martin Thomas Antony, “Muttuchira Sliva and Lithic inscriptions: Landmark monuments of Saint Thomas Christians of India”, The Harp, vol. XXX, 2016, SEERI, Kottayam, pp. 300-301.
[14]) T. K. Joseph, “A Rajasimha Inscription at Thalekkad in Cochin”, Malabar Miscellany, in Sir Richard Carnac Temple, ed., The Indian Antiquary, A Journal of Oriental research, Council of Royal Anthropologicval Institute, Bombay, 1928, p. 28 (Mr Joseph cites a letter on Mr M. P. Varkki on 16 Nov. 1926 that the Saint Sebastian’s Church was a Holy Cross Church in the past and the feast of discovery of the true cross of Jesus by Saint Helena was celebrated in this church. Mr Joseph also narrates that the ancient Holy Cross Church at Muttuchira is now saint Anthonys and Holy Ghost now vouching that the European Missionaries changed the name of many churches in Kerala as part of Latinisation).
[15]) Matteo Salonia, “The first voyage of Giovanni da Empoli to India: Mercantile culture, Christian faith, and the early production of knowledge about Portuguese Asia”, The International Journal of Maritime History (volume 31, issue 1), pp. 3-18. Copyright © 2019 SAGE Publications. DOI: 10.1177/0843871418822446.
[16]) Henry E. J. Stanley, (tr.), A description of the coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of Sixteenth century by Duarte Barbosa, Haklutt Society, London, 1865, p. 162.
[17]) Henry E. J. Stanley, (tr.), A description of the coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of Sixteenth century by Duarte Barbosa, Haklutt Society London, 1865, p. 163.
[18]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De Menesis: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, p. 187.
[19]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De Menesis: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, p. 244.
[20]) Antony Valalvanthara, India in 1500 AD, Gorgias Press, 2001, p. 97.
[21]) Antony Valalvanthara, India in 1500 AD, Gorgias Press, 2001, p. 97.
[22]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De Menezes: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, pp. 187-188, see footnote 159.
[23]) George Menacherry, Art and Archetecture in the Christian culture of the first millennium CE of Kerala, paper presented in the Liturgical Research Centre of Syro Malabar Church, Kerala on the Social Life of Kerala in the first millennium, Kochi, 2005, http://www.nazraney.org/journal13.htm accessed on 14 January 2023.
[24]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De Menezes: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, p. 188, footnote 159.
[25]) Martin Thomas Antony, “Muttuchira Sliva and Lithic inscriptions: Landmark monuments of Saint Thomas Christians of India”, The Harp, vol. XXX, 2016, SEERI, Kottayam, pp. 300-301.
[26]) T. K. Joseph, “A Rajasimha Inscription at Thalekkad in Cochin, Malabar Miscellany”, in Sir Richard Carnac Temple, ed., The Indian Antiquary, A Journal of Oriental research, Council of Royal Anthropologicval Institute, Bombay, 1928. p. 28.
[27]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De menesis: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, p. 216.
[28]) https://kurishupally.org/history.html accessed on 08 January 2023.
[29]) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btz4lMlXcAA accessed on 08 January 2023.
[30]) https://kottayamad.org/moonnu-nombu-and-purathumaskaram-at-kaduthuruthy/ accessed on 08 January 2023.
[31]) Joseph Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India vol II,Church History Association of India, Bangalore, 2001.
[32]) Antony Vallavanthara, India in 1500 AD, Georgias Press, 2001, pp. 166-167, 231.
[33]) Pius Malekkandathil, ed., Jornada of Alexis De Menezes: A Portuguese account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, Kochi, 2003, pp. 244 and 245, footnote 190.
[34]) CPT Winkworth, “A new interpretation of the Pahlavi Cross inscriptions of Southern India”, The Journal of Theological Studies, April 1929, pp. 237-244.
[35]) Martin Thomas Antony, “Alengad sliva: The neglected jewel of the ancient Christian settlement in Alengad and the most ancient Christian artefact of Malabar, South India”, The Harp, vol. XXX, 2016, p. 278.
[36]) Makara Torana is an ornamental canopy or arch originating from the mouth of two makara, water creatures. This is common in South Indian and Sinhalese architecture. https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/makaratorana accessed on 14 January 2023. See also, Lakshman Ranasinghe, “The evolution and significance of Makra Torana”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanca, New Series, vol. 36, (1991-92), pp. 132-145.
[37]) Eckehard Bickelmann, “The Saint Thomas Cross, an early example of the inculturation of Christian art in India”, Indian Church History review, vol. IV, No 2, p. 64.
[38]) Martin Thomas Antony, Mathew Mailaparampil, “The Pahlavi inscribed processional cross of Herat, Afghanistan and the Pahlavi crosses of South India: A comparative study of religio cultural traditions of the Churches of India and Parthia”, The Harp, vol. XXXII, Kottayam, 2017, pp. 254-255.
[39]) Jason Johns, “Ornamentations around the Symbol of Cross: A comparative overview”, Xplore-The Xavier Research Journal, vol. 9, issue 1, Dec. 2018, pp. 45-55, p. 48.
[40]) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giwargis_of_Christ accessed on 14 January 2023, http://www.nazraney.org/bishops.pdf accessed on 14 January 2023.
[41]) https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/newly-discovered-300-yr-old-inscription-sheds-light-keralas-forgotten-persian-bishop-157810 accessed on 14 January 2023, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mar_Gabriel_of_Ardishai.jpg accessed on 14 January 2023.
[42]) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBWSzcnl-5U accessed on 14 January 2023.
[43]) Henry Hosten, Antiquities from San Thome and Mailappore, 1936, p. 7, and plate 26.
[44]) Mar Awa Royel, “The Sacraments of the Assyrian Church of the East”, in Li Tang and Dietmar W Winkler, eds., Winds of Jingjiao, Studies on Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia, Zurich, 2016, p. 393.
[45]) Martin Thomas Antony, “Muttuchira Sliva and Lithic inscriptions:Landmark monuments of Saint Thomas Christians of India”, The Harp, vol. XXX, 2016, Kottayam, p. 294.
[46]) Henry Hosten, Antiquities from San Thome and Mailappore, 1936, p. 349, footnote 2, citing Pontificale Romanum.